Reflections on how the implementation of sustainable development goals across the UK and Ireland can influence the mainstreaming of these goals in English planning practice

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are an ambitious and voluntary undertaking by governments to implement sustainable development. Many countries have been pursuing a process of localisation, in which local and regional priorities are rooted in the implementation of the SDGs. The UK’s implementation of SDGs has been hindered by its governance arrangements and the perspective that they are primarily for developing countries. A review of official UK parliamentary reports from 2016 to 2020 and the government’s Voluntary National Review (H.M. Government, 2019) have highlighted a knowledge gap and inconsistency in the implementation of the SDGs. Years of perma-reform in planning, resulting in policy turbulence, have further retarded their adoption in England. Devolution has led to a divergence in planning practice across the UK. The approach outside of England has been much more proactive. This article seeks to bridge this knowledge gap by reflecting on practice in the UK and Ireland and how this might influence the mainstreaming of the SDGs in future planning practice in England.


INTRODUCTION
The implementation of the United Nation's (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is fundamental to achieving resilient cities and communities. Clear, strong leadership at international, national and local levels is key to implementing the SDGs. Decisions should be made at the appropriate level. 1 Biermann, Kanie and Kim (2017: 26) point out that past global governance efforts have relied largely on top-down regulation or market-based approaches, and that the SDGs promise a novel type of governance that makes use of non-legally binding, global goals set by the UN member states. The approach of governance through goals is marked by a number of key characteristics such as the inclusive goal-setting process, the non-binding nature of the goals, the reliance on weak institutional arrangements, and the broad latitude that states enjoy, none of which is specific to this type of governance. These characteristics together result in a new and distinct means of institutional global governance (Biermann et al., 2017: 26).
Since the adoption of the SDGs, many countries have been pursuing a process of localisation, in which local and regional priorities are rooted in the implementation of the SDGs, as will allow the cocreation of a new framework of governance that is meaningful and practical in the day-to-day lives of citizens. Localisation requires multi-level and multi-stakeholder coordination, financial support, and capacity-building for local and regional governments to effectively participate (GTL & RG, 2020: 9).
The current political environment in England is both turbulent and unreceptive to professional planning. This is typified by the relentless reforms that have occurred in the English planning system over the past ten years (2010-2020). These reforms have resulted in fundamental changes to planning practice (Jones, Hillier & Comfort, 2016). The mood music to this planning reform has been one of scepticism from senior political figures (Geraghty, 2017a: 168). The culmination of 1 Goal 16 identifies the importance of building effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
this has been the publication of a White Paper on planning reform in August 2020 (MHCLG, 2020 In response to the political scepticism and reform agenda, the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) has sought to demonstrate the value of planning (Adams, O'Sullivan, & Inch, 2016). The RTPI points out that understanding and evaluating the impact of planning in relation to higher level goals such as the UN SDGs, or other national government outcomes tied to these, is ambitious and still in the early stages: "Our survey evidence suggests that while this is progressively being established in many places, there is still not necessarily a clear knowledge of what is being delivered through the planning system. If there can be more comprehensive data on the outcomes of a planning application for example, looking beyond simply number of units built, then evaluating the wider cumulative impact would represent a considerable leap in understanding performance." (RTPI, 2020: 19-20).
This article considers the occurrence of localisation in the devolved nations of the United Kingdom (UK) and Ireland and reflects on how understanding divergent practice can assist in addressing the knowledge deficiency among planning professionals and policymakers. In particular, how learning from the devolved nations can support the mainstreaming of the SDGs in future planning practice in the UK.

THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
The approach adopted involved a literature review of official UK parliamentary reports from when the SDGs came into force to the present (2016-2020), the government's Voluntary National Review (H.M. , and the National Planning Policy Framework. This review highlighted a knowledge gap and inconsistencies in implementing the SDGs. One way of bridging this knowledge gap is through reflective practice. As Willson pointed out, the idea of reflective practice is not new (Schön, 1983) but during turbulent and challenging times it can be a valuable approach. Willson (2020) mentions that reflection particularly helps planners navigate between idealism and realism. Reflecting on the manner in which the SDGs have been implemented in the devolved nations, Ireland and at local authority level provides indicators on how the SDGs could be mainstreamed in future planning practice in England. As a practitioner working in local government in England, it is critical to have commitment from central government to delivering the goals, and importantly, clear guidance as to how they are implemented and applied. This, coupled with a monitoring regime, is essential to ensure that they are achieved at all levels of governance, as envisaged by the UN. Many countries are applying a localisation approach, which requires multi-level and multi-stakeholder support. Without a clear implementation strategy, which the White Paper could have identified, it is difficult to perceive how the necessary resources and capacity are available to successfully achieve their implementation.

BACKGROUND TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
The UN (2015) adopted The approach to governance embodied in the SDGs (Biermann et al., 2017: 26) requires a whole-ofgovernment and a whole-of-society approach. It is necessary to achieve more accountable and effective governance and more inclusive societies, based on strengthening existing partnerships and building new ones (GTL & RG, 2020: 14). Participation is an essential component of sustainable urban development, promoted by the 2030 Agenda (UN-Habitat, 2020: 8). The role of different levels of government in the implementation of the SDGs depends on the political and institutional framework of each country. Each level of government should have the capacity to set its own priorities in line with its legal areas of responsibility, and to pursue them through local and regional plans and sectoral policies (GTL & RG, 2016: 25). This is increasingly being achieved through a process of localisation. Mainstreaming the SDGs into local plans and policies appears to be a prominent objective in the strategies adopted by an increasing number of countries (GTL & RG, 2020: 48 This has created a weakness that pervaded the whole approach to delivering the SDGs in England. Government departments are required to embed the goals in their single departmental plans (SDPs) (House of Lords Library, 2018). The Cabinet Office has been given a role in coordinating domestic delivery of the goals through the SDP process.

Parliamentary scrutiny of the implementation of sustainable development goals
The 2030 Agenda specifies that the monitoring and review of the SDG process be "voluntary, state-led, undertaken by both developed and developing countries, and shall provide a platform for partnerships, including through the participation of major groups and other relevant stakeholders" (UN, 2015: 39). As part of the UN's review and monitoring process, member states are encouraged to conduct "regular and inclusive [national] reviews" called voluntary national reviews (VNRs). The UK Government published its VNR on 26 June 2019 (H.M. Government, 2019: 8-12).
There is a strong sense of disengagement in the "domestic" implementation of SDGs elsewhere in government, particularly MHCLG, which is responsible for planning and local government. For example, as recently as January 2019, the HoC Environmental Audit Committee (2019: 3) reported: "In their present format, Single Departmental Plans (SDPs) are insufficient to deliver the SDGs in the UK. Government's failure to ensure that all SDG targets are covered in the SDPs has left significant gaps in plans and accountability".
The UK's approach to implementing the SDGs has been the subject of scrutiny by several committees.

Goal 1
No poverty, in all its forms, everywhere.

Goal 2
Zero hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.

Goal 3
Good health and well-being for all at all ages.

Goal 4
Quality education that is inclusive and equitable and to promote life-long learning opportunities for all.

Goal 5
Gender equality and empower all women and girls.
Goal 6 Clean water and sanitation for all.

Goal 7
Affordable and clean energy for all.

Goal 8
Decent work and economic growth, full and productive employment for all.

Goal 9
Promote inclusive and sustainable industry, foster innovation, and build resilient infrastructure.
Goal 10 Reduced inequalities within and among countries.

Goal 11
Sustainable cities and communities that are inclusive, safe and resilient.
Goal 12 Responsible production and consumption.
Goal 13 Urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources.
Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems.
Goal 16 Promote just, peaceful and inclusive societies; provide access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

Goal 17
Revitalise the global partnership between governments, the private sector, and civil society to implement the sustainable development agenda. "The Government's response to domestic implementation of the SDGs has so far been insufficient for a country which led on their development as being universal and applicable to all … Engagement of government departments will be central to the success of domestic implementation, which itself has an impact on making progress on the goals globally." The Committee went so far as to say that: "We are deeply concerned at the lack of a strategic and comprehensive approach to implementation of the Goals. Without this, it is likely that areas of deep incoherence across government policy could develop and progress made by certain departments could be easily undermined by the policies and actions of others. It also reflects a worrying absence of commitment to ensure proper implementation of the SDGs across government." (

IMPLEMENTATION OF SDGS IN ENGLAND
The constituent parts of the UK (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) have, until relatively recently, been governed centrally from London. Between 1998 and1999, the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, the Northern Ireland Assembly and the London Assembly were established by law. The devolved nations have powers to legislate for planning and environmental matters, including the implementation of the SDGs.

The demise of English regional planning and a decade of perma-reform
In England, there has been a long-standing antipathy from the Conservative Party towards regional planning and governance. This is demonstrated in a Green Paper entitled "Open Source Planning" (2010), which espoused unequivocally that "[w]e believe that the introduction of a regional planning layer has been an expensive failure and have no qualms about dismantling it" (Conservative Party, 2010: 10). On entering into a coalition government in May 2010, they dissolved Regional Assemblies and abolished Regional Spatial Strategies in favour of neighbourhood planning enacted in the 2011 Localism Act. In the absence of a clear localisation agenda, these actions have had a detrimental effect on the implementation of the SDGs in England, as evidenced by the findings of many parliamentary committees (see section 4.1).
Tewdwr -Jones (2012: 212) pointed out: "The emerging function of governance across different parts of the UK appears to be reliant on both formal and informal structure of policy making. In the absence of strict codes and institutional, statutory and political parameters provided by central government for the establishment of the more ad hoc, informal partnership bodies, governance in different parts of the UK appears to be a diverse picture of fragmentation and responsibility." Since the dissolution of regional governance in the UK, there has been an increasing trend towards regional inequality. It has arrested decision-making at a regional or sub-regional level. The UK 2070 Commission, which undertook an inquiry into regional inequalities in the UK, highlighted these issues in its final report, which states that there is "a lack of institutions to take strategic decisions locally". This, in turn, leads to: "a growing inequality … New devolved, decentralised and inclusive administrative structures, powers and resources are required, which are sensitive to national and regional differences and local circumstances, and which will create the institutional capacity to bring about change" (UK 2070 Commission, 2020: 34).
The dissolution of regional governance has been accompanied by a decade of perma-reform in English planning (Geraghty, 2019b), leading to what Tewdwr-Jones (2012: 221) describes as "policy turbulence". Such turbulence causes difficulty for spatial planning because of the rapidity of change and the extended time it takes for spatial strategies to be developed.

Deficiencies in the approach to the implementation of SDGs in England
This "policy turbulence", as described by Tewdwr-Jones, is exemplified by the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF). First published on 27 March 2012, the NPPF consolidated 1,300 pages of government policy. It is the backbone of the English planning system (Geraghty 2019a: 354). It underwent a major revision in July 2018 (MCLG, 2018) and was further revised in February 2019 (MCLG, 2019).
Paragraph 7 of the NPPF states: "The purpose of the planning system is to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development." The NPPF would have been the natural document in which to set out a framework for achieving SDGs. However, the updated NPPF makes no reference to the SDGs or how they might be achieved (Geraghty, 2019a: 361). Similarly, the DFID (2017) report on SDGS makes no reference to urban planning or the NPPF.
It would have been possible to map the NPPF against the SDGs and use it to show how compliance with them might be achieved. This is consistent with the approach recommended by the guidance produced by the LGA (LGA & UKSSD, 2020: 13). In contrast, the Northern Ireland Assembly carried out such a mapping exercise for the SDGs (DAERA, 2018). Geraghty (2019a: 364) demonstrated how, even with a basic approach, the NPPF can be mapped against the SDGs. This mapping would be the first step to the formalization of SDG commitments, as discussed in Biermann et al. (2017: 27). It could then have provided the framework for local authorities to carry out VLRs and to inform development plans. Table 2 shows this mapping exercise (Geraghty, 2019a: 363).
14. Meeting the challenge of climate change, flooding, and coastal change 6, 13, 14 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.b, 13. This lack of awareness is reflected in the VNR, which hardly makes any reference to the NPPF. As will be noted later, the Republic of Ireland has identified a strategic priority under the SDG National Implementation Plan to mainstream "the SDGs across national policies, so that when relevant sectoral policies are developed or reviewed, Ireland's commitments under the SDGs will be taken into account" (Government of Ireland, 2018: 9).
The absence of leadership in government in implementing the SDGs and the diffidence towards regional governance has led some cities and local authorities to become catalysts of change to bridge the gap. A point made by United Cities and Local Government (UC & LG): "All of the SDGs have targets that are directly or indirectly related to the daily work of local and regional governments. Local governments should not be seen as mere implementers of the agenda. Local governments are policy makers, catalysts of change and the level of government best-placed to link the global goals with local communities" (UC & LG, 2015: 2).

Implementation of SDGs at a local level in England
In contrast to the dilatory approach at a national level in England, some English local authorities and cities are demonstrating local leadership in implementing SDGs. The currently small number of examples of practice in England probably arise from the low level of awareness and the failure of the NPPF to promote the goals. The LGA has stepped in to fill the gap by producing a guide for local authorities. To implement the SDGs, the LGA advises local authorities to identify which of their own existing goals, targets, plans and policies contribute to each of the SDGs, broadly supporting either the entire goal or one or more of the targets within it (LGA & UKSSD, 2020:13). One of the challenges for local authorities is finding a balance between a comprehensive set of indicators (which can include the locally adapted SDG indicators) and using their existing monitoring frameworks such as annual monitoring reports (Klopp & Petretta, 2017: 92-97). The introduction of national guidance through the NPPF or other guidance would assist in achieving this: "Achievement of the SDGs depends heavily on the active involvement of regional and local authorities, in particular through specific approaches to translate the SDGs into their own context." (EU, 2019: 12) In the absence of national or regional guidance, cities are taking an increasing role in promoting the SDGs. The latest draft Greater London Authority's (GLA) London Plan sets out the aspiration that "the concept of Good Growth -growth that is socially and economically inclusive and environmentally sustainable -underpins the London Plan and ensures that it is focused on sustainable development" (Mayor of London, 2019: paragraph 0.0.18); it does not however, identify the SDGs specifically. This is somewhat surprising but may, in some part, be due to their absence from the NPPF. The new Ambassador will raise awareness and the profile of Bristol's SDGs work. S/he will also champion the SDGs in local development plans, and act as the political lead for the goals. This is the first role of its kind in the UK (Townsend & Macleod, 2018: 13-14). Bristol City Council launched Bristol One City Plan in January 2019. This Plan was developed through extensive consultation and citizen engagement and articulates a vision for making Bristol a fair, healthy and sustainable city for all by 2050. A commitment to the SDGs is integral to the plan. The SDGs' vision for sustainable and inclusive prosperity that "leaves no-one behind" is strongly aligned with the city's collective priorities and ambitions (Fox & Macleod, 2019: 8 York City in north Yorkshire, England, is placing sustainability at the heart of its future actions. On 17 March 2016, the authority's Executive approved the implementation of One Planet York, so that sustainability is put "at the heart of everything we do" and drives wider progress towards creating a sustainable, resilient, and collaborative "One Planet" city. The Council developed a One Planet Council Action Plan, with specific plans, targets and indicators. One Planet York is a growing network of organisations working to make York a more sustainable, resilient, and collaborative "One Planet" city. This includes creating a city that has a thriving local economy, strong communities, and a sustainable way of life; a city where residents are healthy, happy and prosperous (York City Council).

Salford City Council in Greater
Manchester, England, is using its Local Plan to drive equality issues. Chapter 5 of the Revised Draft Local Plan for Salford, a fairer city (January 2019) identifies the importance of the SDGs in achieving a fairer Salford. The plan states that "delivering a fairer Salford is central to everything that the Local Plan is seeking to accomplish" (Salford City Council, 2019: 30).
Southend-on-Sea Borough Council in Essex, England, is currently preparing a new Local Plan. The new Plan will provide the planning framework for Southend to 2036, beyond the current plan period of 2021. It is currently at the Issues and Options stage of the formal plan-making process (Southendon-Sea Borough Council, 2019). As part of that stage, the draft plan includes sections on how different policies or issues contribute to the SDGs. The draft plan seeks to achieve the delivery of these goals through the plan-making process and to engage the local community and stakeholders on how that might be achieved (Geraghty, 2019a: 364). As the draft plan is advanced, the SDGs will inform the development of plan policies.

The implementation of SDGs in Scotland
The National Performance Framework (NPF) is the mechanism delivering the SDGs in Scotland.
The NPF was recently reviewed and sets out the vision for Scotland. This vision is expressed through 11 national outcomes, a set of values that establish a collective purpose for Scotland focusing on well-being, sustainability and inclusive economic growth. The NPF is identified in statute through the Community Empowerment (Scotland Act) 2015, which places a duty on Scottish ministers to review the National Outcomes every five years. The next review is due in 2023.
There are 81 national indicators underpinning the 11 outcomes that will help track progress in achieving these long-term outcomes. The SDGs have been embedded into the NPF by mapping the goals to the outcomes and aligning the indicators, where appropriate and possible. This integration means that working towards delivering the national outcomes will also enable progress against the SDGs.
The Scottish National Outcome "Communities" corresponds closely with SDG11. It aims to create inclusive, safe, and resilient places for all, and it is monitored by eight of the NPF national indicators.
One of these, the accessibility to green public space, is a close match with SDG target 11.7.
In future, policy and plans that sit below the National Performance Framework may give an opportunity to address the other nine SDG11 targets. For example, housing affordability is expected to be addressed in the fourth Scottish National Planning Framework (NPF4).
In contrast, the English equivalent, the NPPF, which was only revised in 2019, does not even mention the SDGs (see section 5.3).
The commitment to sustainable development is further strengthened in the Planning (Scotland) Act 2019, which identifies that the purpose of planning is to manage the development and use of land in the long-term public interest, which ties planning to sustainable development and the delivery of the Scottish national outcomes. Performance of local planning authorities in Scotland is measured by an annual Planning Performance Framework.

The implementation of SDGs in Wales
The Well-being of Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 requires public bodies to think more about the long-term, work better with people and communities and each other, and take a more joined-up approach to improve the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of Wales. This Act includes ambitious, long-term goals for Wales. It sets 44 public bodies, including the Welsh Government, a legally-binding aim to work towards the seven goals set out in the Act. The Act also supports the principle of sustainable development and aligns with the Agenda 2030. It sets out the five ways of working which, when adopted, will contribute to maximising the benefits achieved across the seven goals.
There is a clear focus on improving social, economic, environmental, and cultural well-being in Wales. Progress towards the seven "well-being goals" will be measured through a set of 46 national indicators. These indicators align to, but are not an exact match with the SDGs. They reflect a localised approach to sustainable development (GTL & RG, 2016: 28).
The Act does not set milestones or a time frame to achieve the "well-being goals", leaving it to the action of the successive Welsh Governments to guarantee their implementation. It places a legal requirement on Welsh Ministers to set national indicators for the purpose of measuring progress towards the achievement of the "well-being goals".
Eight of the 46 Welsh indicators are closely aligned with the SDG11 targets. The current approach to implementing the Well-being of Future Generations Act focuses on planning, housing, and transport. For example, the Welsh National Development Framework (NDF) -a spatial strategy due to be published in 2020 -will directly link to their achievement.
Each year a Well-being of Wales Report (Welsh  is published that provides an update of the progress, with a more detailed report issued every four to five years to review long-term performance. Policy and monitoring in Wales is also being aligned. Planning Policy Wales (PPW10) integrates the Well-being Act into national planning policy, and the Welsh Government's Planning Directorate has established the Planning Performance Framework to assess the contribution of Welsh planning to their achievement. Local planning authorities in Wales produce an Annual Performance Report.
The Planning Performance Framework metrics relevant to the SDG11 cover the quality and efficiency of local plans, the degree of participation in local plan-making, and the supply of land and housing. However, they do not currently address housing affordability or sustainable transport.
The commitment to sustainability is further recognised in the Environment Wales Act of 2016, which sets out a commitment to the promotion of the sustainable management of natural resources.

The implementation of SDGs in Northern Ireland
Planning was decentralised only in April 2015. Consequently, the approach to SDGs in Northern Ireland

The implementation of SDGs in the Republic of Ireland
Ireland has adopted a "whole-of-Government" approach to the SDGs. The Implementation Plan is the first in a series of implementation plans, each of which will endeavour to integrate the SDGs into national policy. The Plan identifies four strategic priorities to guide implementation: • Awareness: Raise public awareness of the SDGs.
• Participation: Afford stakeholders the opportunity to engage and contribute to follow-up and review processes, and further develop national implementation of the Goals.
• Support: Encourage and support efforts of communities and organisations to contribute towards meeting the SDGs, and foster public participation.
• Policy alignment: Develop alignment of national policy with the SDGs and identify opportunities for policy coherence.
These priorities represent a process of localisation. While some of the SDGs are more closely aligned with individual national themes than others, Ireland's implementation of every goal will be informed by these themes and principles as a whole, in recognition of the fact that the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development cannot be advanced in isolation from each other. It sets out how the SDGs align with Ireland's national themes for sustainable development. However, in order to further integrate the SDGs into national policy, Ireland will prepare and adopt a new sustainable development strategy by the end of 2020, which will directly incorporate the SDGs (Government of Ireland, 2018: 10).
Mapping the SDGs against government policy is achieved by an SDG matrix that identifies the responsible government departments for each of the 169 targets. It also includes an SDG policy map, indicating the relevant national policies for each of the targets. The Plan also sets out 19 specific actions to be implemented over the plan period. This mapping methodology contrasts with the fragmented approach of the UK Government using SDPs, which the HoC Audit Committee concluded are "insufficient" to deliver the SDGs. The publication of an implementation plan for England would provide much needed clarity and leadership.

CONCLUSION
The success of implementing the SDGs depends on government at all levels and civil society working together. Following the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, many countries have been pursuing a process of localisation, in which local and regional priorities are rooted in the implementation of the SDGs, creating a new meaningful and practical framework of governance relevant to the lives of citizens.
The UK Government's approach to implementing the goals has been hampered by its governance arrangements and its perspective that the SDGs are for developing countries (HoC International Development Committee, 2019: 3). This has led to a lack of awareness of the existence and relevance of SDGs (HoC Environmental Audit Committee, 2019: 3-4), which has inhibited their adoption. Moreover, a lack of regional governance, coupled with years of perma-reform (Geraghty, 2019b), resulting in significant policy turbulence, has retarded their adoption in England, in particular.
Whilst there are some examples of where local government in England is beginning to take up the challenge of achieving the SDGs, reflecting on the lessons drawn from practice in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, strong leadership across all levels of government is fundamental to implementing the SDGs. A voice at the top of government speaking for the long-term aspirations embodied in the SDGs is vitally necessary (HoC Environmental Audit Committee, 2017: 3, 31). For example, including them in a national implementation plan as in Ireland, or in primary legislation, as is the case with Wales. This is critical where regional governance is weak or non-existent, as is the case in England. Government needs to empower local authorities to fulfil the important role in meeting the challenge of implementing the SDGs. This could have been done by means of the revisions to the NPPF, or new guidance on LVRs or AMRs.
Reflecting on practice elsewhere in the UK and Ireland, the recent White Paper could have been the first step in introducing such measures and mainstreaming the SDGs in England.